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2024年3月16日发(作者:)
Unit 2 Value
American Values and Assumptions
Gary Althen
People who grow up in a particular culture share certain values and
assumptions. That doesn’t mean they all share exactly the same values to exactly
the same extent; it does mean that most of them, most of the time, mostly agree
with each other’s ideas about what is right and wrong, desirable and undesirable,
and so on. They also agree, mostly, with each other’s assumptions about human
nature, social relationships, and so on.
Individualism
One of the most important things to understand about Americans is how
devoted they are to “individualism”. They have been trained since very early in
their lives to consider themselves as separate individuals who are responsible for
their own situations in life and their own destinies. They have not been trained to
see themselves as members of a close-knit, tightly interdependent family, religious
group, tribe or nation.
You can see this in the way Americans treat their children. Even very young
children are given opportunities to make their own choices and express their
opinions. A parent will ask a one-year-old child what color balloon she wants,
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which dessert she prefers, or where she wants to sit. The child’s preference will
normally be accommodated. Through this process, Americans come to see
themselves as separate human beings who have their own opinions and who are
responsible for their own decisions.
Indeed, American child-rearing manuals state that the parents’ objective is
for the child to move out of the parents’ house and make his or her own way in
life. Americans take this advice very seriously, so much so that someone who
remains dependent on their parents longer than the norm may be thought to be
“immature”, “tied to the mother’s apron strings,” or otherwise unable to lead
a normal independent life.
Americans are trained to conceive of themselves as separate individuals, and
they assume everyone else in the world is too. When they encounter a person from
abroad who seems to them excessively concerned with the opinions of parents,
with following traditions, or with fulfilling obligations to others, they assume that
the person feels trapped, or is weak and “too dependent.”
Americans, then, consider the ideal person to be an individualistic, self-reliant,
independent person. They assume, incorrectly, that people from elsewhere share
this value and this self-concept. In the degree to which they glorify “the
individual” who stands alone and makes his or her own decisions, Americans are
quite distinctive.
The American version of the “ideal individual” prefers an atmosphere of
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freedom, where neither the government nor any other external force or agency
dictates what the individual does. For Americans, the idea of individual freedom is
strongly positive. By contrast, people from many other cultures regard some of the
behavior Americans justify as “individual freedom” to be self-centered and
lacking in consideration for others.
Foreigners who understand the degree to which Americans are imbued with
the notion that the free, self-reliant individual is the ideal kind of human being will
be able to understand many aspects of American behavior and thinking that
otherwise might not make sense. A very few of the many possible examples:
Americans see as heroes those individuals who “stand out from the crowd”
by doing something first, longest, most often, or otherwise “best.” Examples are
aviators Charles Lindbergh and Amelia Earhart.
Americans admire people who have overcome adverse circumstances (for
example, poverty or a physical handicap) and “succeeded” in life. Black educator
Booker T. Washington is one example; the blind and deaf author and lecturer
Helen Keller is another.
Many Americans do not display the degree of respect for their parents that
people in more traditional or family-oriented societies commonly display. They
have the conception that it was a sort of historical or biological accident that put
them in the hands of particular parents, that the parents fulfilled their
responsibilities to the children while the children were young, and now that the
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children have reached “the age of independence” the close child-parent tie is
loosened, if not broken.
It isn’t unusual for Americans who are beyond the age of about 22 and who
are still living with their parents to pay their parents for room and board. Elderly
parents living with their grown children may do likewise. Paying for room and
board is a way of showing independence, self-reliance, and responsibility for
oneself.
Certain phrases one commonly hears among Americans which capture their
devotion to individualism include: “Do your own thing.” “I did it my way.”
“You’ll have to decide that for yourself.” “You made your bed, now lie in it.”
“God helps those who help themselves.” “Look out for number one.”
Privacy
Closely associated with the value they place on individualism is the
importance Americans assign to privacy. Americans assume that people “need
some time to themselves” or “some time alone” to think about things or
recover their spent psychological energy. Americans have great difficulty
understanding someone who always wants to be with another person, who
dislikes being alone. Americans tend to regard such people as weak or dependent.
If the parents can afford it, each child will have his or her own bedroom.
Having one’s own bedroom, even as an infant, imbues people with the notion
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that they’re entitled to a place of their own where they can be by themselves and
— notice — keep their possessions. They have their own clothes, toys, books and
so on. These things are theirs and no one else’s.
Americans assume that people have their “private thoughts” that might
never be shared with anyone. Doctors, lawyers, psychiatrists, and others have rules
governing “confidentiality” that are intended to prevent information about their
clients’ personal situations from becoming known to others.
Americans’ attitudes about privacy can be difficult for foreigners to
understand. Americans’ houses, yards, and even their offices can seem open and
inviting, yet, in the Americans’ minds, there are boundaries that other people are
simply not supposed to cross. When the boundaries are crossed, Americans will
visibly stiffen and their manner will become cool.
Informality
Their notions of equality lead Americans to be quite informal in their general
behavior and in their relationships with other people. Store clerks and table servers,
for example, may introduce themselves by their first (given) names and treat
customers in a casual, friendly manner. American clerks, like other Americans, have
been trained to believe that they are as valuable as any other people, even if they
happen to be engaged at a given time in an occupation that others might consider
lowly. This informal behavior can outrage foreign visitors who hold high status in
countries where it is not assumed that “all men are created equal.”
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Relationships between students, teachers, and coworkers in American society
are often very informal. People from societies where general behavior is more
formal than it is in the United States are struck by the informality of American
speech, dress, and body language. Idiomatic speech and slang are liberally used
on most occasions, with formal speech reserved for public events and fairly formal
situations. People of almost any station in life can be seen in public wearing jeans,
sandals, or other informal attire. People slouch down in chairs or lean on walls or
furniture when they talk rather than maintaining an erect bearing.
A brochure advertising a highly regarded liberal arts college contains a
photograph showing the college president, dressed in shorts and an old T-shirt,
jogging past one of the classroom buildings on his campus. Americans are likely to
find the photograph appealing: “Here is a college president who’s just like
anyone else. He doesn’t think he’s too good for us.”
Likewise, U.S. President George W. Bush frequently allowed himself to be
photographed in his jogging attire while out for one of his frequent runs.
The superficial friendliness for which Americans are so well-known is related
to their informal, egalitarian approach to other people. “Hi!” they will say to just
about anyone, or “Howyadoin?” (that is, “How are you doing?” or “How are
you?”). This behavior reflects not so much a special interest in the person
addressed as a concern (not conscious) for showing that one is a “regular guy,”
part of a group of normal, pleasant people—like the jogging college president and
the jogging president of his superpower country.
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Directness and Assertiveness
Americans, as we’ve said before, generally consider themselves to be frank,
open, and direct in their dealings with other people. “Let’s lay our cards on the
table,” they say. Or, “Let’s stop playing games and get to the point.” These and
many other common expressions convey the Americans’ idea that people should
explicitly state what they think and what they want from other people.
Americans usually assume that conflicts or disagreements are best settled by
means of forthright discussions among the people involved. If I dislike something
you are doing, I should tell you about it directly so you will know, clearly and from
me personally, how I feel about it. Bringing in other people to mediate a dispute is
commonly considered somewhat cowardly, the act of a person without enough
courage to speak directly to someone else. Mediation is, however, slowly gaining
in popularity in recent years.
The word assertive is the adjective Americans commonly use to describe the
person who plainly and directly expresses feelings and requests. People who are
inadequately assertive can take “assertiveness-training classes.” What
Americans consider assertive is, however, often judged as aggressive by some
non-Americans and sometimes by Americans—if the person referred to is a
woman.
Americans will often speak openly and directly to others about things they
dislike, particularly in a work situation. They will try to do so in a manner they call
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“constructive,” that is, a manner the other person will not find offensive or
unacceptable. If they do not speak openly about what is on their minds, they will
often convey their reactions in nonverbal ways (without words but through facial
expressions, body positions, and gestures). Americans are not taught, as people in
many Asian countries are, that they should mask their emotional responses. Their
words, the tone of their voices, or their facial expressions will usually reveal their
feelings: anger, unhappiness and confusion or happiness and contentment. They
do not think it improper to display these feelings, at least within limits. Many
Asians feel embarrassed around Americans who are exhibiting a strong emotional
response to something. On the other hand, Latin Americans and Arabs are
generally inclined to display their emotions more openly than Americans do and
to view Americans as unemotional and “cold.”
Americans, however, are often less direct and open than they realize. There are
in fact many restrictions on their willingness to discuss things openly. It is difficult
to categorize those restrictions, which are often not “logical” in the sense of
being consistent with each other. Generally, though, Americans are reluctant to
speak openly when the topic is in an area they consider excessively personal, such
as unpleasant body or mouth odors, sexual functioning, or personal inadequacies;
they want to say no to a request that has been made of them but do not want to
offend or hurt the feelings of the person who made the request; they are not well
enough acquainted with the other person to be confident that direct discussion
will be accepted in the constructive way that is intended; and, paradoxically, they
know the other person very well (it might be a spouse or close friend) and they do
not wish to risk giving offense and creating negative feelings by talking about
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some delicate problem. A Chinese visitor invited an American couple to his
apartment to share a dinner he had prepared. They complimented him warmly
about the quality of his meal. “Several Americans have told me they like my
cooking, “ he replied, “but I cannot tell whether they are sincere or are just being
polite. Do you think they really like it?”
All of this is to say that Americans, even though they see themselves as
properly assertive and even though they often behave in open and direct ways,
have limits on their openness. It is not unusual for them to try to avoid direct
confrontations with other people when they are not confident that the interaction
can be carried out in a constructive way that will result in an acceptable
compromise.
Foreigners often find themselves in situations where they are unsure or even
unaware of what the Americans around them are thinking or feeling and are
unable to find out because the Americans will not tell them directly what they have
on their minds. Two examples follow:
Sometimes a person from another country will “smell bad” to Americans
because he or she does not follow the hygienic practices, including daily bathing
and the use of deodorants, that most Americans think are necessary. But
Americans will rarely tell another person (American or otherwise) that he or she
has “body odor” because that topic is considered too sensitive.
A foreigner (or another American, for that matter) may ask a “favor” of an
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American that he or she considers inappropriate, such as wanting to borrow some
money or a car or asking for help with an undertaking that will require more time
than the American thinks she or he has available. The American will want to decline
the request but will be reluctant to say no directly.
Americans might feel especially reluctant to refuse a foreigner directly for fear
of making the person feel unwelcome or discriminated against. They will often try
to convey their unwillingness indirectly by saying such things as “It’s not
convenient now” or by repeatedly postponing an agreed-upon time for carrying
something out.
Despite these limitations, Americans are generally more direct and open than
people from almost all other countries with the exception of Israel and Australia.
They will not try to mask their emotions, as Scandinavians or Japanese tend to do.
They are much less concerned with “face” (that is, avoiding embarrassment to
themselves or others) than most Asians are. To them, being honest is usually more
important than preserving harmony in interpersonal relationships.
Americans use the words pushy or aggressive to describe a person who is
excessively assertive in expressing opinions or making requests. The line between
acceptable assertiveness and unacceptable aggressiveness is difficult to draw.
Iranians and people from other countries where forceful arguing and negotiating
are common forms of interaction risk being seen as aggressive or pushy when they
treat Americans in the way they treat people at home. (2415 words)
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Vocabulary:
close-knit:
a. tightly bound together紧密结合在一起的;组织严密的
accommodate:[ə'kɑmədet]
vt. take into consideration对…予以照顾性
rear: [rɪr]
vt. care for (a child or animal) until fully grown抚养饲养
manual:
n. a book which teaches about how to do sth. or how sth works手册,指南
norm: [nɔrm]
n. (oft. pl.) a standard of proper behavior in a particular society or place准则;
规范
apron: ['eprən]
n. 围裙;工作裙
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aviator: ['evɪ'etɚ]
n. the pilot of an aircraft
adverse:[ædˈvɚs, ˈædˌvɚs]
a. difficult, not beneficial (to sth)不利的,有害的
orient: ['orɪənt]
vt. set or determine (sth.’s/sb.’s) position relative to other things给…定位;
给…定方向
number one:
(infml) oneself 自己的;look out for number one: 谋求自身的利益
stiffen: ['stɪfn]
v. (cause to)become uncomfortable, less friendly, etc., as when afraid or
offended(使)变硬;(使)不易弯曲
sandal:['sændl]
n. 拖鞋,便鞋
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attire:[ə'taɪə]
服装;盛装
brochure: ['brəʊʃə; brɒ'ʃʊə] 美 [bro'ʃʊr]
n. a small book usually having a paper cover手册,小册子
superficial: 英 [,suːpə'fɪʃ(ə)l; ,sjuː-] 美 [,supɚ'fɪʃl]
表面的;肤浅的; 浅薄的
assertiveness:[ə'sə:tivnis]
n. aggressive self-assurance; given to making bold assertions过分自信; 果断;
肯定
explicitly: [ɪk'splɪsɪtli]
in an explicit manner明白地;明确指出地
Scandinavians: [,skændi'neiviən; -vjən]
n. 斯堪的纳维亚人
pushy:['pʊʃi]
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adj. marked by aggressive ambition and energy and initiative有进取心的; 固执
己见的
Exercises:
1. Comprehension questions:
1) In what ways do the Americans train their children?
2) What do the people from other cultures think of American culture?
3) Why are Americans devoted to “individualism”?
4) What do Americans think of people who are dependent on one’s parents
longer than the norm?
5) Why do the grown children living with parents often pay for their room and
board?
6) Why do the Americans value privacy?
7) Why do the Americans take an informal way toward people?
8) What do the people from other cultures think of Americans’ informality?
9) What do the Americans think about expressing one’s opinion?
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10) How do the Americans usually settle their conflicts?
2. Discussion:
1) Compare the different views about individualism of the Americans and
Chinese people.
2) Describe the ways the Americans show their informality.
Reading 2:
The ABCs of the USA
1
America can be a strange experience for a foreigner. My wife and I arrived in
the United States in January after seven years overseas -- four in France, three in
Poland. From the jumble of first impressions, we compiled an A-to-Z explanation
of why America can be such a foreign country to those who arrive here from
Europe.
2
I should explain at the outset that I am from Britain, but my Florida-born
wife Lisa is as American as apple pie. In our list, however, A doesn’t stand for
apple pie. It stands for:
3 Ambition.
In the Old World, people are taught to hide it. Here it’s quite
proper to announce that you‘re after the boss’s job or want to make a million
dollars by the age of 30.
15
4 Breakfast
. The American habit of conducting business at breakfast has
reached Europe, but I doubt it will ever really catch on. In France and Britain,
breakfast is a family affair. Here, it’s become part of the power game.
5 Credit Cards
. You really can’t leave home without them. It’s interesting,
and somewhat frustrating, to discover that bad credit is better than no credit at all:
I was refused a VISA card on the grounds that I didn’t have a credit profile (信用
记录).
6 Dreams
. The American Dream is still very much alive. Dreaming great
dreams is what keeps American society going -- from the waitress who wants to
become a car dealer to the street kid who wants to become a basketball star.
Europeans dream dreams too, but don’t seem to believe in them so much.
7 Exercise
. A couple of years ago I came to Washington with some French
journalists. As our bus passed a health club on the way to the hotel, the French
visitors cheered at the sight of body-conscious Americans bending, stretching and
leaping around. America’s obsession with physical fitness really amuses -- and
puzzles -- Europeans.
8 First names
. In Europe, people progress in a natural and orderly way from
the use of last names to the use of first names. Here, it’s first names at first sight.
This can cause confusion for Europeans. With everyone on a first-name basis, how
can you tell your acquaintances from your friends?
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9 Gadgets
(小玩意). These can be addictive. It’s difficult to imagine now how
we survived for so long without automatic ice machines and microwave ovens.
10 Hardware Stores
. If I were in charge of arranging the programs of visiting
delegations from less-developed countries, I’d include a compulsory visit to a
hardware store. These temples of American capitalism reveal a whole range of
American values, from the do-it-yourself pioneer spirit through a love of comfort
that absolutely astonishes most foreigners.
11 Insurance
. Americans have policies to cover every possible risk, no
matter how remote. So far, we’ve refused supplementary insurance for our car
radio, death insurance for our mortgage and accident insurance for our cat. It
gives us a feeling of living dangerously.
12 Junk food
. Anyone who wants to understand why Americans suffer from
higher rates of cancer and heart disease only has to look at what they eat.
13 Ketchup
(调味番茄酱). I had to come to America to discover that it can be
eaten with anything -- from French fries to French cheese.
14 Lines
. American lines -- beginning with the yellow line at immigration
control -- are the most orderly in the world. The British queue, once internationally
renowned, has begun to decay in recent years. The French queue was never very
impressive, and the Italian line is simply a mob.
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15 Money
. In Europe, everybody likes money, but no one shows it off.
Unless it’s been in the family for several generations, there’s often an
assumption that it was acquired dishonestly. In America, no one cares how you got
it.
16 No smoking
. No longer just a polite request in America, this phrase has
become the law. Nobody would dare ask a Frenchman to put out his Galoise in a
restaurant.
17 Oliver North
. What other major Western democracy lets army officers
take over foreign policy? A hero for some, a traitor for others, Ollie (see First
Names) is an example of an American recklessness that awes and alarms
Europeans.
18 Patriots
. They exist everywhere, of course, but the American version is
louder and more self-conscious than the European. In Britain, it’s taken for
granted that politicians love their country. Here, they’re expected to prove it.
19 Quiet
. American cities are quieter than European cities -- thanks to noise
controls on automobiles and to recent environmental legislation. This was a major
surprise for someone brought up to assume that America was a noisy place.
20 Religion
. The idea of putting preachers on TV is alarming to Europeans.
It’s even more alarming to see them in action.
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21 Sales
. Ever since arriving in Washington, we’ve been hurrying to take
advantage of this week’s unrepeatable offer, only to discover that it’s usually
repeated next week. We’re just catching on that there’s always an excuse for a
sale.
22 Television
. That grown-ups can watch game shows and sitcoms at 11 AM
amazes me -- but the national habit, day or night, is contagious. I recently found
myself nodding in agreement with a professor who was saying that American kids
watch too much television. Then I realized that I was watching him say this on
television.
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24
Ulcers
(溃疡). See Work.
Visas
. Americans don’t need visas to visit Britain (or most European
countries, for that matter). To enter the United States, I had to sign a document
promising that I would not overthrow the government by force and had no
criminal record. One wonders if many terrorists and criminals answer “yes” on
these questionnaires.
25 Work
. People in less developed countries often imagine that they can
become rich simply by emigrating to America. But America became a wealthy
society through work, work and more work. It’s still true.
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TVs.
X-rated movies
. We have them in Europe too, but not on motel-room
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27 Yuppies
. The European counterpart remains a pale shadow of the
all-American original. The animal seems more ambitious, and more common, on
this side of the Atlantic.
28 Zillion
. What other nation would invent a number that’s infinitely more
than a billion? America may not always be the best, but it certainly thinks big.(1064
words)
Vocabulary
jumble:['dʒʌmbl]
a confused multitude of things混杂;混乱
compile:[kəm'paɪl]
put together out of existing material编辑,编纂,编制;汇编
gadgets:[gæ,dʒɪts]
n. 小配件;小工具
ketchup:['kɛtʃəp]
thick spicy sauce made from tomatoes调味番茄酱
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ulcers: ['ʌlsɚ]
n. 溃疡
Exercises:
1. Comprehension questions:
1) What was the author’s aim in compiling this list?
2) Why does he feel he should explain in the beginning the homeland of his
and his wife’s?
3) How does the author define the American Dream?
4) Why did the French journalists “cheer at the sight of body-conscious
Americans”?
5) According to the author, how does the American use of first names confuse
Europeans?
6) How does the author explain the European attitude towards money?
7) Judging from the other descriptions of European attitudes in the text, why
does the idea of having religion on TV alarm Europeans?
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8) What does the author mean by “Ulcers: See Work”?
9) Why does he wonder about the questionnaires foreigners must fill out in
order to enter the United States?
10) What does the last sentence of the text mean?
2. Discussion:
1) As you read the selection, underline or highlight the passages that values.
Then, in the margin next to a marked passage, indicate how prominent the value is
in your culture by writing "very strong," "strong," "not very strong," or "weak."
2) compared with the value of the U.S. talk about the value of Chinese culture.
Reading 3:
A Foreign Anthropologist's Observation of Americans
Deena R. Levine & Mara B. Adelma
Sometimes it’s difficult to describe the values or ideals of a culture from
within that culture. However, if one looks at the culture from the outside, certain
observations can be made more easily. It’s important to understand American
values if you want to understand American behavior. Certain ways of thinking,
acting and communicating are a direct result of cultural values. The following list
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of values describes the basic values of many Americans (even a majority of
Americans). For each entry in the list of American values, a “contrasting value” is
given. Each of these opposite values may be found among some Americans
(particularly those belonging to certain minority groups), but for the most part is
more typical of people in non-Western cultures of the world.
1. American Value: Personal control over the environment: People can alter
nature, and, to a large extent, can determine the direction of their lives.
Contrasting Value: Fate: What happens in life is a result of a grand plan or
destiny.
2. American Value: Change: Change is healthy. People stagnate if they don’t
make enough changes.
Contrasting value: Tradition: The preservation of ceremonies, customs, and
beliefs from the past is important and worthy.
3. American Value: Control over time: Time flies. People are pressured by time.
People shouldn’t waste time. They must rush to get things done, and must follow
their schedules to be productive.
Contrasting value: Time walks. There’s no need for people to feel so
pressured. They should take it easy!
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4. American Value: Equality and egalitarianism: All people are created equal
and deserve equal rights. (Remember: This is a value or ideal, not an established
reality.)
Contrasting value: Rank and status: People’s roles are defined in terms of
their relationships to other people; people can be inferior or superior to someone
else.
5. American Value: Individualism and privacy: Individual needs are considered
primary.
Contrasting Value: Group orientation: The individual sacrifices his or her needs
to those of the group.
6. American Value: Self-help: People can and should try to improve their own
lives, their own minds, their own marriages and even their own personalities.
Contrasting Value: Birthright inheritance: People are born into either wealth or
poverty and should live according to tradition; we all “are who we are” and
shouldn’t pretend otherwise.
7. American Value: Action and work orientation: Work often defines people;
they identify themselves by what they do. (“What do you do?” nearly means:
“Who are you?”)
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Contrasting Value: “Being” orientation: Work is not the heart and soul of
person; it’s okay not to focus on work, accomplishments and achievements.
8. American Value: Informality: First name usage (“Just call me Bob”), casual
clothes, and a lack of formal ceremony are typical of American life.
Contrasting Value: Formality: The use of titles and last names is common;
displays of respect are important; keeping a little distance is considered good
manners.
9. American Value: Directness, openness, and honesty: “Honesty is the best
policy.” People should express themselves openly. It’s not considered good to
“beat around the bush.”
Contrasting Value: Being indirect and “saving face”: People should consider
one another’s feelings when deciding what to say. Honesty is not always the best
policy.
10. American Value: Materialism: It’s okay to be more concerned with
material goals than with spiritual or intellectual goals.
Contrasting value: Spirituality: All reality is spiritual; nothing material is as
important. (560 words)
Vocabulary:
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Stagnate: [stæɡ'net]
vi. vt. stand still; cease to flow; stand without moving停滞;淤塞;变萧条
egalitarianism: [ɪ,gælɪ'tɛrɪənɪzəm]
n. the doctrine of the equality of mankind and the desirability of political and
economic and social equality平等主义,[经] 平均主义
Birthright: ['bɝθraɪt]
n. a right or privilege that you are entitled to at birth与生俱来的权利
Spirituality: [,spɪrɪtʃu'æləti]
n. concern with things of the spirit灵性;精神性
Exercises:
1. Questions:
1) What is the Americans’ attitude toward change?
2) What do the Americans think of if you keep a little distance in relationships?
3) What do the Americans think of the efforts to save face?
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2. Mark each statement I (Implied) or NI (Not Implied), and underline the
sections of the text that support your answers:
1. The best judges of a culture are the people who have never lived within it.
2. The “contrasting values” in the list are the ones that most Americans
would like to achieve.
3. Americana don’t plan their lives.
4. Americans have a positive attitude toward change.
5. To Americans, the saying “all people are created equal” means that only
outstanding people deserve special privileges.
6. In America, people are expected to make efforts to improve their situations.
7. Americans often make assumptions about people based on the work that
they do.
8. Americans may find it rude if you keep a little distance in relationships.
9. To Americans, efforts to save face may appear dishonest.
10. Americans feel pressured to hide their spiritual goals.
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Reading 4:
Cheating as Culture: Insights for Foreign Teachers
1 When foreign teachers first come to a new country, they usually expect —
even look forward to — a different approach to education than what they’re used
to. So it’s interesting that they’re often completely unprepared for many of the
specific cultural differences they run into in their classrooms. When new American
teachers first come to Poland, for example, one of their most frequent (and
furious!) cries is:“My students are cheating all the time!” Hearing this, the Polish
students become confused and angry, and the result is usually a series of
ever-worsening misunderstandings that do a lot of damage to student/teacher
relations. But this mutual ill could be easily avoided if only everyone remembered
that cheating is a culturally relative matter.
2 The cultural values of Polish society are reflected in the education system,
just like anywhere else. Poland is a group-oriented society, which means that
cooperation is strongly emphasized. And although this attitude is very appealing
in theory to most Americans, adjusting to the way it’s practiced in everyday life
can be a major challenge for someone from a society that emphasizes individual
responsibility. It’s enormously difficult for them to grasp that what they call
cheating, Poles call survival.
3 In a group-oriented society, it’s unthinkable to refuse help to a friend in
need. It’s a survival thing: When a friend needs money, you lend it to him — next
28
week he’ll drive you to the train station to pick up your visiting cousins. When a
neighbor needs help carrying some new furniture upstairs, you help her — in a
month she’ll let you use her phone when you’ve lost your keys and are locked
out of your flat in the cold. And when a classmate whispers a desperate question
during a test, you answer him — after all, he lent you the book you needed in
order to finish your essay last month. How can you refuse?
4 An American might respond by saying that of course you can refuse — easily!
— and that there are a hundred better (and obvious!) solutions to the problem of
the desperate classmate than helping him cheat. But 99 of those “better
solutions” are only better in the context of a society where the focus is on
individual responsibility; and they’re only “obvious” to someone who’s grown
up in an individualist culture and been imbued with its values. For Poles, what’s
obvious and better — is concern for the well-being of the whole group and the
cooperative bonds that are essential to everyone’s survival.
5 There’s another level to the cheating issue as well. The ability to use one’s
wits to escape from a difficult situation has always been highly valued in Polish
culture — doubtless due to historical reasons. Polish history is a history of hardship,
invasion and occupation, and Poles have had to rely on their inventiveness to
survive, not on wealth or military strength. Cheating at school — especially if it’s
done successfully or at least creatively is simply one variation on the time-honored
skill of worming your way out of a hard spot. And although Polish teachers don’t
all approve of it, they are much more likely than Americans to look the other way,
or even secretly admire it a bit.
29
6 Understanding the deep-rooted cultural reasons for cheating may not
always help you overcome your gut reactions to it — but it can be useful in finding
ways to cope with it. Trying to wipe out the cheating just turns the academic year
into a series of bitter battles — and Poles have a lot more experience as resistance
fighters than you do, believe me! Instead, I recommend trying some of the
techniques that creative Polish instructors use: Instead of declaring war on the
cheating, build it into your tests and assignments so that it contributes to the
students’ education. Before a test, make the preparation of “cheat sheets” a
homework assignment or even an in-class group activity — then collect them and
grade them before the test. Give group tests and group homework, making it clear
that you expect the learners to use each other as educational resources, and that
they will be graded collectively. Give open-book tests — after all, it’s the
information age, and knowing how to access information is a more useful skill than
memorizing it! Finally, never assume that it’s obvious to the students when you
expect completely individual work from them. In a group-oriented culture, this
isn’t obvious at all.
7 The issue of cheating is just one example of the kinds of conflicts that can
arise in classrooms where two cultures meet. Recognizing these conflicts as
cultural differences is the first step towards making them part of the educational
experience for everyone in your classroom. But there’s a second crucial
ingredient as well. It’s called tolerance. (795 words)
Vocabulary:
30
Pole: [pəul]
n. 波兰人
crucial: [ 'kru:ʃəl ]
adj. of extreme importance; vital to the resolution of a crisis重要的;决定性的
ingredient: [ɪn'griːdɪənt]
n. adj. a component of a mixture or compound原料;要素;组成部分
Exercises:
1. Decide whether the following statements are true or false.
1) Foreign teachers are often unprepared for a different approach to education
from what they’re used to.
2) The term “cheating is a culturally relative matter” (para.1) means that
different cultures view this issue in different ways.
3) Cooperation is highly valued in Polish society.
4) Individual responsibility is highly valued in American society.
31
5) The author believes that American solutions to the problem of the
desperate classmate are better than helping him cheat.
6) Historical factors contribute to the cheating issue.
7) Polish teachers don’t always punish cheaters.
8) The author believes that understanding the cultural reasons for cheating
will help American teachers overcome their gut reactions to it.
9) The author considers the preparation of “cheat sheets” a good homework
assignment.
10) The author believes that American teachers should change their
students’ cultural values.
2. Discussion:
1. What do the Chinese students think of cheating?
Reading 5:
Living and working in Britain
David Hampshire
32
The typical Briton is introspective, patriotic, brave, small-minded, polite,
insecure, arrogant, a compulsive gambler, humorous, reserved, conservative,
hypocritical, a racist, boring, a royalist, depressed, a keen gardener, hard-working,
unambitious, ironic, passionless, hard-headed, liberal, a traditionalist, a couch
potato, homely, pragmatic, cynical, decent, unhealthy, a poor cook, pompous,
proud, tolerant, conceited, courageous, mean (a bad tipper), courteous, stuffy,
well-mannered, disciplined, a habitual queuer, modest, gloomy, shy, serious,
honest, fair, snobbish, friendly, civilised, prejudiced and class conscious.
If the above list contains a few contradictions, it’s because there’s no such
thing as a typical Briton and very few people conform to the standard British
stereotype (whatever that is).
Class Systems
One of the things which initially confuses foreigners living in the UK is its class
system, which is a curious British affectation. Entry to the upper class echelons is
rooted in birthright and ill-bred upstarts with pots of ‘new’ money (particularly
foreigners with unpronounceable names), find they’re unable to buy entry to the
most exclusive clubs and homes of England (even when they’re seriously rich).
Many Britons are obsessed with class and for some, maintaining or improving their
position on the social ladder is a full-time occupation (the ultimate aim being to
acquire a knighthood or peerage). The rest of us pretend we’re a ‘better’ class
than we actually are, with the exception of a few politicians who are busy trying to
live down their privileged past in order to court popularity with the
33
underprivileged masses.
The UK has been uncharitably described (with a hint of truth) as a society
based on privilege, inherited wealth and contacts. Class is also what divides the
bosses from the workers in the UK and the class struggle is at the root of many
industrial disputes. It has certainly reignited over the past couple of years. A
blue-collar (manual) worker must never accept a position that elevates him to the
ranks of the lower middle class (a white-collar job), otherwise his workmates will
no longer speak to him and he will be banned from the local working men’s club.
(As a consolation he may be accepted as a member at the Conservative club).
Similarly, middle-class management must never concede an inch to the workers
and, most importantly, must never have direct discussions with them about
anything, particularly pay rises or a reduction in working hours.
British Food
One thing that would probably cause a strike in any country is British food,
particularly in most company canteens and restaurants, where everything is served
with chips or ice-cream. Of course, British food isn’t always as bad as it’s
painted by foreigners. (What can people who eat anything that crawls, jumps,
swims or flies, possibly know about real food?). While it’s true that British food is
often bland, may look terrible and can make you sick, for most people it’s just a
matter of getting used to it. (What’s wrong with a diet of brown sauce, chips,
biscuits and tea, anyway?). After all, it’s usually necessary to become acclimatised
to the food in most foreign countries.
34
To compensate for their deficiencies in the kitchen, the British are famous for
their love of wine (or anything alcoholic) and are among the world’s foremost
(self-appointed) experts on the character and qualities of good wine, although
they’re often better talkers than drinkers. The secret of dining in the UK is to
drink a lot as, when you’re drunk, most food tastes okay.
Socializing
You may sometimes get the impression that the British are an unfriendly lot, as
your neighbours won’t always say hello and probably won’t drop by or invite
you to their home for a cup of tea. (If they offer coffee, invent an urgent
appointment!). As an outsider, it may be left to you to make the first move,
although if you drop by uninvited, your neighbours may think that you’re being
pushy and just trying to sneak a look at their home. Northerners are generally
friendly and warm-hearted, particularly when compared with the detached and
aloof southerners who won’t usually give you the time of day. If your southern
neighbour does condescend to speak to you, he’s likely to greet you with the
ritual “How are you?” This doesn’t, of course, mean “How are you feeling
mentally, physically or spiritually?”, but simply “Hello”. The questioner usually
couldn’t care less whether you’re fighting fit or on your death bed. The ritual
answer is (even if you’ve just had a heart and lung transplant) “Fine, thank you –
how are you?”
Dialects
35
It’s a common misconception among many foreigners that the British all
speak English. There are numerous accents and dialects, half of which are so thick
that you could be forgiven for thinking that people are conversing in an ancient
secret language. A Briton’s accent and choice of words is usually a dead giveaway
as to his upbringing.
Many Britons are prejudiced against all foreigners and the English are also
prejudiced against English from other regions, Irish, Scots, Welsh, Yanks,
Europeans, most other foreigners and anyone who speaks with a different (i.e.
lower class) accent. However, don’t be concerned, as British xenophobia always
refers to ‘the others’ and present company is usually excepted. The British, in
common with most other races, don’t have a lot of time for foreigners,
particularly rich tourists and foreigners who buy up all the best property, and who
should all stay at home. Most Britons’ image of foreigners is gleaned from the
stereotypes portrayed on television. For example, every Briton knows that all
Americans are millionaires with flash cars, murderers or policemen (or all three),
drive like maniacs and make love with their clothes on in full make-up. However,
it’s the Germans and Japanese who, despite providing us with reliable cars and
other things that work, remain the baddest of baddies and are still portrayed as
‘the enemy’ in weekly television (TV) reruns of World War II.
Understatements
The British are masters of the understatement and rarely rave about anything.
If they’re excited about something they sometimes enthuse “that’s nice” and,
36
on the rare occasion when they’re deliriously happy, they’ve been known to
exclaim “I say, that’s rather good”. On the other hand, if something disastrous
happens (such as their house burns down) it might be termed “a spot of bother”.
The end of the world will probably be pronounced “unfortunate” or, if there was
something particularly good on TV that evening, it may even be greeted as “a
jolly bad show” (the ultimate tragedy). The true character of the British is,
however, revealed when they’re at play, particularly when they’re engaged in
sport.
Queuing
The British have a passion for queuing (lining up) and appear to outsiders to
have endless patience – as you would expect from a nation that can endure a
five-day cricket match. The British queue everywhere for everything, including
football tickets, sales (when people queue for days or weeks), buses, trains, aircraft,
post offices, government offices, hospital beds. The other form of queue popular
in the UK is the traffic jam.
Queuing isn’t always a necessity, but simply a herd instinct that compels
people to huddle together (in winter it helps to keep warm), except of course when
travelling by public transport, when the rules are somewhat different. On public
transport you must never sit next to anyone when an empty seat is available and
you must spread yourself and your belongings over two or three seats and never
move for anyone. (The best way is to feign sleep with a belligerent expression on
your face — most people wouldn’t dare disturb you). You must avoid looking at
37
your fellow passengers at all costs (in case a stranger smiles at you), usually
achieved by staring fixedly at the back of a newspaper or out of the window.
Whatever you do, don’t open a window and let in any nasty fresh air, which will
cause a riot.
Money and Gambling
The main problem with the British economy (apart from the ineptitude of
British politicians) is that many Britons lack ambition. They certainly want
‘loadsamoney’, but would rather do almost anything than work for it (contrary
to the popularly held misconception that ‘hard work never did anyone any
harm’, the British know only too well that it can prove fatal). The British are
reluctant entrepreneurs and many succeed in their own business only when forced
into it.
Most people prefer to try their luck at gambling (rather than work) and will bet
on almost anything, including the national lottery, football pools, horse and
greyhound racing, bingo, casinos, names of royal babies or ships, public
appointments, election results and who the Prime Minister will sack next (or who
will resign) – you name it and someone will make a book on it. (One of the reasons
that gambling is so popular in Britain is that gambling debts are unenforceable in
law). However, the attitude to gambling is changing. Nowadays, someone who
wins a fortune on the lottery is unlikely to declare that it won’t change his life and
that he’ll be keeping his job as a 50 pounds a week farm labourer (instead he’ll
buy a villa in Spain, a yacht and a Ferrari). If the British injected as much energy
38
into work and business as they do into gambling, they might even be able to
compete with the Germans and Japanese.
The secret of life
The secret of life in the UK is to maintain a sense of humour (and carry a big
umbrella). Most Brits have a lively sense of humour and a keen sense of the
ridiculous, which helps make life in the UK bearable. (The worst insult is to accuse
someone of having no sense of humour). One of the things that endears the British
most to foreigners is their ability to poke fun at themselves (the British don’t take
themselves too seriously) and everyone else, as typified in TV programmes such as
Monty Python and Dead Ringers. Nothing escapes the barbs of the satirists: from
the Pope to the Prime Minister, the President of the US to the Royal Family,
everyone is lampooned with equal affection.
It’s often difficult for foreigners to understand British humour or to recognise
when someone is being serious or joking, although the subject at hand usually
offers a clue. Generally, the more earnest or solemn the topic, the more likely they
are to be joking. Amazingly, some foreigners think that the British have no sense of
humour, usually Americans who don’t understand our subtle way with words and
cannot understand real English anyway. Many foreigners believe the British are at
least a little eccentric and, at their worst, stark staring bonkers. (1776 words)
Vocabulary
39
Briton: [ 'britən ]
n. a native or inhabitant of Great Britain英国人
introspective: [ ,intrəu'spektiv ]
dj. given to examining own sensory and perceptual experiences反省的;内向的
arrogant: ['ærəɡənt]
adj. having or showing feelings of unwarranted importance out of overbearing
pride自大的,傲慢的
hypocritical: [ ,hipə'kritikl ]
adj. professing feelings or virtues one does not have虚伪的;伪善的
racist: ['resɪst]
n. a person with a prejudiced belief that one race is superior to others种族主义
者
royalist: [ 'rɔiəlist ]
n. an advocate of the principles of monarchy保皇主义者;保皇党人
40
hard-headed: [,ha:d'hedid]
adj. unreasonably rigid in the face of argument or entreaty or attack;
cool-headed; levelheaded头脑冷静的
a couch-potato: 电视迷
pragmatic: [præg'mætɪk]
adj. concerned with practical matters实际的;实用主义的
cynical: ['sɪnɪkl]
adj. believing the worst of human nature and motives; having a sneering
disbelief in愤世嫉俗的;冷嘲的
stuffy: ['stʌfi]
adj. excessively conventional and unimaginative and hence dull闷热的;古板的
disparate: ['dɪspərət]
adj. fundamentally different or distinct in quality or kind同的;不相干的
assort: [ə'sɔrt]
41
vt. keep company with; hang out with协调;交往
ethnic: ['ɛθnɪk]
adj. denoting or deriving from or distinctive of the ways of living built up by a
group of people种族的;人种的
echelons: ['ɛʃəlɑn]
n. a body of troops arranged in a line梯次编队;梯阵;阶层
reignited: [riːɪg'naɪt]
vt. ignite anew, as of something burning再次点燃;重新激起…;
elicit: [ɪ'lɪsɪt]
vt. call forth (emotions, feelings, and responses); deduce (a principle) or
construe (a meaning) 抽出,引出;引起
rave: [rev]
. talk in a noisy, excited, or declamatory manner 咆哮;胡言乱语;狂骂
entrepreneur: [,ɔntrəprə'nə:]
42
n. someone who organizes a business venture and assumes the risk for it (工商)
企业家,实业家,承包人
eccentric: [ɪk'sɛntrɪk]
adj. conspicuously or grossly unconventional or unusual古怪的,反常的 n. a
person with an unusual or odd personality古怪的人
bonker:
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