[ 句子简化题 - 例题讲解 ]
[ 句子简化题 - 例题 1 ]
TPO-15 A Warm-Blooded Turtle
In a countercurrent exchange system, the blood vessels carrying cooled blood from the flippers run close enough to the blood vessels carrying warm blood from the body to pick up some heat from the warmer blood vessels; thus, the heat is transferred from the outgoing to the ingoing vessels before it reachs the flipper itself.
veins = the blood vessels carrying cooled blood = the ingoing vessels
静脉，携带冷却血的血管，回到心脏的血管
atreries = the blood vessels carrying warm blood = he outgoing vessels
动脉，携带温血的血管
句子简化题分析
1. 找主干
① 静脉到动脉
② heat outing 到 ingoing
2. 找逻辑词：thus 因此
3. 考点
In a turtle's countercurrent exchange system, outgoing vessels lie near enough to ingoing ones that heat can be exchanged from the former to the latter before reaching the turtle's flippers.
1. outing 到 ingoing
Within (在…之内) the turtle's flippers, there is a countercurrent exchange system that allows (允许) colder blood vessels to absorb heat from nearby warmer blood vessels and then return warmed blood to the turtle's body.
1. 原文是整个血液循环
In a countercurrent exchange system, a turtle can pick up body heat from being close enough to other turtles, thus raising its blood temperature as it passes them.
1. 原文是一个乌龟的温度交换
When a turtle places (放置; 安顿) its flippers close to its body, it is able to use its countercurrent exchange system to transfer heat from the warmer blood vessels in its body to the cooler blood vessels in its flippers.
1. 原文是身体内部的血液循环
[ 句子简化题 - 例题 2 ]
TPO-18 Industrialization in the Netherlands and Scandinavia
The key factor in the success of these countries (along with high literacy, with contributed to it) was their ability to adapt to the international division of labor determined by the early industrializers and to stake out areas of specialization in international markets for which they were especially well suited.
Netherlands 荷兰 Scandinavia 欧洲
stake out 争取
aid 援助；帮助
claim 声称；赢得
句子简化题分析
1. 找主干：
关键因素是有能力(因为文化水平高)
① 适应国际分工
② 争取专长领域
2. 找逻辑词：
3. 找考点：
The early industrializers controlled most of the international economy, leaving these countries to stake out new areas of specialization along the margins.
1. 原文没说控制大部分的国际经济
Aided by their high literacy rates these countries were able to claim key areas of specialization within established international markets.
对了
High literacy rates enable these countries to take over international markets and adapt the international division of labor to suit their strengths.
strength n. 体力; 强度; 毅力; 实力; 优点;
1. 原文没说接管市场
The international division of labor established by the early industaializers was suited to these countries, a key factor in their success.
1. 原文中是adapt国际市场
[句子简化题 - 例题 3 ]
Artisans in Sixteenth-Century Europe
For centuries European artisans had operated in small, autonomous handcraft businesses, but by the sixteenth century an evolving economic system—moving toward modern capitalism, with its free-market pricing, new organization of production, investments, and so on—had started to
erode their stable and relatively prosperous position. What forces contributed to the decline of the artisan?
force 力
1. 找主干
① 欧洲工匠有自己事业
② 进化的经济系统腐蚀这些人的经济
2. 找逻辑词：but (后面更重要)
3. 找绝比概否词：否：erode 腐蚀
1. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.
A In the sixteenth century, the European economy moved toward a system of free-market pricing, new ways of production, and investments.
1. 选项没提到主干
B Before the sixteenth century, European makers of handcrafts enjoyed stability, autonomy, and relative prosperity.
1. 与主干不符
C By the sixteenth century, the rise of capitalism began to weaken the autonomy and relative prosperity of European artisans.
D European artisans operated small, autonomous businesses before modern capitalism emerged in the sixteenth century.
1. 不存在转折but
[ 句子简化题 - 例题 4 ]
Effects of Commercial Revolution
As the commercial revolution spread, this kind of exchange tended to spread with it, with the recently added areas of commerce providing new kinds of raw materials or new sources for familiar products of the natural world, and the longer established commercial centers—which might themselves have lain at the margins of this transformation—producing, or acting as the intermediaries in the transmission of, manufactured commodities.
1. 找主干
① 这种交换普及
② 早期建立的商业中心生产货物
2. 找逻辑词：
3. 找绝比概否词：
11. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information
A During the commercial revolution, newer centers of trade acted as intermediaries in the exchange of different types of manufactured goods.
1. 选项没提到主干
B Longer-established trading centers were familiar with the unprocessed products of the natural world, but depended on other areas as sources for manufactured commodities.
1. 与主干意思相反
C Eventually, the commercial revolution led to a trading system whereby newly established commercial centers provided the resources needed for the production of goods while older trading centers produced the goods or assisted in their distribution.
D The commercial revolution depended on a system of trade where consumers valued novelty in the manufactured goods they acquired, but, at the same time, they wanted to be familiar with the natural products they received.
1. 选项没提到主干
[ 细节题 - 例题讲解 ]
[ 细节题 - 例题 1 ]
Recent studies of the Mayan collapse (beginning around A.D 900) have emphasized the gradual and progressive nature of the process, beginning in the earliest in the South and advancing northward. It was not a single, sudden event, as had once been thought. Warfare and social unrest are thought to have played a part, but these may well have arisen through pressure from
other causes. The Mayan cities had, after all, flourished for over 500 years and had frequently been at war with each other.
4. According to paragraph 3, recent studies claim which of the following about the Mayan collapse?
A. It was caused primarily by frequent wars between rival city-states.
B. It was caused by a single sudden event.
C. It was preceded by social unrest in northern city-states.
D. It began in southern city-states and spread to others.
S： 不是句子简化，没有EXCEPT，没有infer，细节题 - 疑问句
D： recent studies claim
S： gradual beginning earliest South
G：D. It began in southern city-states and spread to others.
[ 细节题 - 例题 2 ]
Orientation and Navigation
Early in his research, Kramer found that caged migratory birds became very restless at about the time they would normally have begun migration in the wild. Furthermore, he noticed that as they fluttered around in the cage, they often launched themselves in the direction of their normal migratory route. He then set up experiments with caged starlings and found that their orientation was, in fact, in the proper migratory direction except when the sky was overcast, at which times there was no clear direction to their restless movements. Kramer surmised, therefore, that they were orienting according to the position of the Sun. To test this idea, he blocked their view of the Sun and used mirrors to change its apparent position. He found that under these circumstances, the birds oriented with respect to the new "Sun." They seemed to be using the Sun as a compass to determine direction. At the time, this idea seemed preposterous. How could a bird navigate by the Sun when some of us lose our way with road maps? Obviously, more testing was in order.
6. According to paragraph 3, why did Kramer use mirrors to change the
apparent position of the Sun?
A. To test the effect of light on the birds' restlessness
B. To test whether birds were using the Sun to navigate
C. To simulate the shifting of light the birds would encounter along their regular migratory route
D. To cause the birds to migrate at a different time than they would in the wild
S： 细节题 - why
D： mirrors Sun
S： this < orienting according Sun
G：orienting = navigate
7. According to paragraph 3, when do caged starlings become restless?
A. When the weather is overcast
B. When they are unable to identify their normal migratory route
C. When their normal time for migration arrives
D. When mirrors are used to change the apparent position of the Sun
S 细节题 - when
D： caged starlings become restless
S： begun migration
G：begun = arrives
[ 细节题 - 例题 3 ]
In experimenting with artificial suns, Kramer made another interesting discovery. If the artificial Sun remained stationary, the birds would shift their direction with respect to it at a rate of about 15 degrees per hour, the Sun's rate of movement across the sky. Apparently, the birds were assuming that the "Sun" they saw was moving at that rate. When the real Sun was visible, however, the birds maintained a constant direction as it moved across the sky. In other words, they were able to compensate for the Sun's movement. This meant that some sort of biological clock was operating-and a very precise clock at that.
9. The experiment described in paragraph 5 caused Kramer to conclude that
birds possess a biological clock because
A. when birds navigate they are able to compensate for the changing position of the Sun in the sky
B. birds innate bearings keep them oriented in a direction that is within 15 degrees of the Suns direction
C. birds' migration is triggered by natural environmental cues, such as the position of the Sun
D. birds shift their direction at a rate of 15 degrees per hour whether the Sun is visible or not
S： 细节题 - because
D： biological clock
S：this meant that < compensate Sun's movement
G： movement = the changing position of the Sun
[ 细节题 - 例题 4 ]
Symbiotic Relationships
Parasitism is a kind of predator-prey relationship in which one organism, the parasite, derives its food at the expense of its symbiotic associate, the host. Parasites are usually smaller than their hosts. An example of a parasite is a tapeworm that lives inside the intestines of a larger animal and absorbs nutrients from its host. Natural selection favors the parasites that are best able to find and feed on hosts. At the same time, defensive abilities of hosts are also selected for. As an example, plants make chemicals toxic to fungal and bacterial parasites, along with ones toxic to predatory animals (sometimes they are the same chemicals). In vertebrates, the immune system provides a multiple defense against internal parasites.
21. According to paragraph 2. which of the following is true of the action of naturalselection on hosts and parasites?
A. Hosts benefit more from natural selection than parasites do.
B. Both aggression in predators and defensive capacities in hosts are favored for species survival.
C. The ability to make toxic chemicals enables a parasite to find and isolate its host.
D. Larger size equips a parasite to prey on smaller host organisms.
S： 细节题
D： the action of natural selection
S：At the same time > find and feed defensive abilities
G： feed on = survival
[ 排除题 - 例题讲解 ]
[ 排除题 - 例题 1 ]
Transition to Sound in Film
Paragraph 3: Beyond that, B. the triumph of recorded sound has overshadowed the rich diversity of technological and aesthetic experiments with the visual image that were going forward simultaneously in the 1920s. C. New color processes, larger or differently shaped screen sizes, multiple-screen projections, even television, were among the developments invented or tried out during the period, sometimes with startling success. A. The high costs of converting to sound and the early limitations of sound technology were among the factors that B. suppressed innovations or retarded advancement in these other areas. The introduction of new screen formats was put off for a quarter century, and color, though utilized over the next two decades for special productions, D. also did not become a norm until the 1950s.
projections n. 预测; 投影; 投掷; 突起物;
limitations n. 限制，边界; 限制
retard vt. 使减速，妨碍，阻止，推迟;
norm n. 标准; 规范
2. According to paragraph 3, which of the following is NOT true of the technological and aesthetic experiments of the 1920’s?
A. Because the costs of introducing recorded sound were low, it was the only innovation that was put to use in the 1920’s.
introduce v. 引进; 介绍
B. The introduction of recorded sound prevented the development of other technological innovations in the 1920's.
C. The new technological and aesthetic developments of the 1920s included the use of color, new screen formats, and television.
D. Many of the innovations developed in the 1920s were not widely introduced until as late as the 1950's.
S： NOT 排除题 technological and aesthetic experiments
D： A. costs low
B. prevented other
C. color television
D. not widely introduced 1950
SG：
[ 排除题 - 例题 2 ]
Water in the Desert
Paragraph 5: Deserts contain large amounts of groundwater when compared to the amounts they hold in surface stores such as lakes and rivers. B.C. But only a small fraction of groundwater enters the hydrological cycle—feeding the flows of streams, maintaining lake levels, and being recharged (or refilled) through surface flows and rainwater. In recent years, D. groundwater has become an increasingly important source of freshwater for desert dwellers. The United Nations Environment Programme and the World Bank have funded attempts to survey the groundwater resources of arid lands and to develop appropriate extraction techniques. Such programs are much needed because in many arid lands there is only a vague idea of the extent of groundwater resources. It is known, however, that the distribution of groundwater is uneven, and that much of it lies at great depths.
3. Paragraph 5 supports all of the following statements about the groundwater in
deserts EXCEPT:
A. The groundwater is consistently found just below the surface
B. A small part of the groundwater helps maintain lake levels
C. Most of the groundwater is not recharged through surface water
D. The groundwater is increasingly used as a source of freshwater
S： EXCEPT 排除题 groundwater
D： A. just below the surface
B. prevented other
C. color television
D. not widely introduced 1950
SG：A
[ 排除题 - 例题 3 ]
Paragraph 4
But what about the possibility of food shortage? These could have come about through either natural or humanly induced changes in the environment. Increasingly fierce competition between Mayan cities led to D. an upsurge of monument construction during the eighth and ninth centuries A.D, which would have placed added strain on agricultural production and expansion. A. Interstate rivalry may hence have pushed the Maya toward overexploitation of their fragile ecosystem.B. Deforestation and soil erosion might ultimately have destroyed the capacity of the land to support the high population levels of the Mayan cities, leading to famine, social unrest, and the collapse of the major Mayan centers.
5. All of the following are mentioned in paragraph 4 as possible direct or indirect causes of food shortages EXCEPT
A. increased monument construction
B. rivalries between states
C. deforestation and erosion
deforestation n. 采伐森林，森林开伐;
D. introduction of new crops
S： EXCEPT 排除题 causes of food shortages
D： A.
B.
C.
D.
SG：D 无
[ 排除题 - 例题 4 ]
Stream Deposit TPO52-1
Paragraph1
A large, swift stream or river can carry all sizes of particles, from clay to boulders. When the current slows down, its competence (how much it can carry) decreases and the stream deposits the largest particles in the streambed. If current velocity continues to decrease - as a flood wanes, for example - B. finer particles settle out on top of the large ones. Thus, a stream sorts its sediment according to size. A waning flood might deposit a layer of gravel, overlain by sand and finally topped by silt and clay. Streams also sort sediment in the downstream direction. A. Many mountain streams are choked with boulders and cobbles, but far downstream, their deltas are composed mainly of fine silt and clay. This downstream sorting is curious because stream velocity generally increases in the downstream direction. Competence increases with velocity, so a river should be able to transport larger particles than its tributaries⽀流 carry. One explanation for downstream sorting is that abrasion wears away the boulders and cobbles to sand and silt as the sediment moves downstream over the years. Thus, only the fine sediment reaches the lower parts of most rivers.
fine adj. 纤细的;难以看出的;小颗粒制成的;
silt n. 淤泥
3. According to paragraph 1, all of the following are true of stream sorting EXCEPT
sort n. 种类; 排序;
A. Most of the particles in mountain streams pile up behind boulders and cobbles.
pile up 堆放，堆积; 积聚; 成堆;
cobble n. 鹅卵石
B. When particles of different sizes settle in a place, the smaller ones sit atop the larger ones.
settle v. 解决;定居；结束；沉降，下陷，变得密实;付清（欠款）
C. There are generally more large particles upstream than downstream in a river.
D. In some situations, downstream particles are created from rocks that eroded as they traveled downstream.
eroded v. 侵蚀的，侵蚀的 erosion n. 腐蚀 abrasion n. 磨损
wear v. 磨损，穿破 wear away 磨损，磨损 worn adj. 穿坏的
S： EXCEPT 排除题 stream sorting
D： A.
B.
C.
D.
SG：A
[ 推理题 - 例题讲解 ]
[ 推理题 - 例题 1 ]
TPO-19 Discovering the Ice Ages
Paragraph 2: The areas covered by this material were so vast that the ice that deposited it must have been a continental glacier larger than Greenland or Antarctica. Eventually, Agassiz and others convinced geologists and the general public that a great continental glaciation had extended the polar ice caps far into regions that now enjoy temperate climates. For the first time, people began to talk about ice ages. It was also apparent that the glaciation occurred in the relatively recent past because the drift was soft, like freshly deposited sediment. We now know the age of the glaciation accurately from radiometric dating of the carbon-14 in logs buried in the drift. The drift of the last glaciation was deposited during one of the most recent epochs of geologic time, the Pleistocene, which lasted from 1.8 million to 10,000 years ago. Along the east coast of the United States, the southernmost advance of this ice is recorded by the enormous sand and drift deposits of the terminal moraines that form Long Island and Cape Cod.
discover v. 发现，找到; 了解到; 发掘(人才);
glaciation n. 冰川作用
buried v. 埋葬;安葬;丧失(某人);把(某物)掩藏在地下;埋藏 bury的过去分词和过去式
radiometric dating of 放射性测年
age 时代，时期
2. It can be inferred from paragraph 2 that Agassiz and other geologists of his time were not able to determine
of his time 他的时代
A. which geographic regions had been covered with ice sheets in the last ice age
in the last ice age 在上一个冰河时期
B. the exact dates at which drifts had been deposited during the last ice age
C. the exact composition of the drifts laid during the last ice age
laid v. 铺设的，铺设的
D. how far south along the east coast of the United States the ice had advanced during the last ice age
coast n. 海岸 v. 沿海岸航行
S： inferred 推理题 细节题方式 not able to determine
D： of his time 时间对比，找相反时间 - now
S： We now know the age of ...
G：= the exact dates B
[ 推理题 - 例题 2 ]
Water in the Desert
Paragraph 1: Rainfall is not completely absent in desert areas, but it is highly variable. An annual rainfall of four inches is often used to define the limits of a desert. D. The impact of rainfall upon the surface water and groundwater resources of the desert is greatly influenced by landforms. Flats and depressions where water can collect are common features, but they make up only a small part of the landscape.
landforms n. 地形( landform的名词复数 ); 地貌;
Which of the following statements about annual rainfall can be inferred from paragraph 1?
annual adj. 每年的; 一年一次的; 全年的;
A. Flat desert areas receive more annual rainfall than desert areas with mountains.
flat adj. 平坦的，扁平的
B. Areas that receive more than four inches of rain per year are not considered deserts.
C. Many areas receive less than four inches of annual rainfall, but only a few are deserts.
D. Annual rainfall has no impact on the groundwater resources of desert areas.
S： inferred 推理题 细节题方式 annual rainfall
D：
S：
G： B
S： inferred 排除题方式 排除题方式 annual rainfall
D：
A：
B：
C：
D：
S+G： B
[ 推理题 - 例题 3 ]
Paragraph 5: Isotopic analysis of shells allowed geologists to measure another glacial effect. They could trace the growth and shrinkage of continental glaciers, even in parts of the ocean where there may have been no great change in temperature—around the equator, for example. The oxygen isotope ratio of the ocean changes as a great deal of water is withdrawn from it by evaporation and is precipitated as snow to form glacial ice. During glaciations, the lighter oxygen-16 has a greater tendency to evaporate from the ocean surface than the heavier oxygen-18 does. Thus, more of the heavy isotope is left behind in the ocean and absorbed by marine organisms. From this analysis of marine sediments, geologists have learned that there were many shorter, more regular cycles of glaciation and deglaciation than geologists had recognized from the glacial drift of the continents alone.
evaporate v. 蒸发
ocean n. 大海
3. It can be inferred from paragraph 5 that foraminifera fossil shells containing calcite with high percentages of oxygen-16 were deposited at times when
A. polar ice extended as far as equatorial regions of land and sea
polar adj. 极地的;近地极的
extend v. 延伸;延长;
equatorial adj. 赤道的，赤道的
B. extensive glaciation was not occurring
extensive adj. 广阔的;广大的;
C. there were no great increases in ocean temperature
D. there was heavy snowfall on continental glaciers
S： inferred 推理题 oxygen-16 deposited when 问时间
D：
S：
G： B
[ 推理题 - 例题 4 ]
Orientation and Navigation
Paragraph 3: Kramer surmised, therefore, that they were orienting according to the position of the Sun. To test this idea, he blocked their view of the Sun and used mirrors to change its apparent position. He found that under these circumstances, the birds oriented with respect to the new "Sun." They seemed to be using the Sun as a compass to determine direction. At the time, this idea seemed preposterous. How could a bird navigate by the Sun when some of us lose our way with road maps?
【实验假设】Obviously, more testing was in order.
Paragraph 4: So, in another set of experiments, Kramer put identical food boxes around the cage, with food in only one of the boxes. The boxes were stationary, and the one containing food was always at the same point of the compass. However, its position with respect to the surroundings could be changed by revolving either the inner cage containing the birds or the outer walls, which served as the background.
【——实验】As long as the birds could see the Sun, no matter how their surroundings were altered, they went directly to the correct food box.【——结论】Whether the box appeared in front of the right wall or the left wall, they showed no signs of confusion. 【——解释】On overcast days, however, the birds were disoriented and had trouble locating their food box.【——特殊】
段落结构 - 实验 [ 扫读每句主干 ]
① 实验过程 -- 结论 -- 特殊 [ 分总 ]
② 假设 -- 实验过程 -- 结论 [ 总分总 ]
2. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 4 about Kramer’s reason for filling one food box and leaving the rest empty?
filling v. 填满
rest n. 其余;其他;剩余部分
A. He believed the birds would eat food from only one box.
B. He wanted to see whether the Sun alone controlled the birds' ability to navigate toward the box with food.
whether 是否
C. He thought that if all the boxes contained food, this would distract the birds from following their migratory route.
D. He needed to test whether the birds preferred having the food at any particular point of the compass.
[ 推理题 - 例题 5 ]
Roman Cultural influence on Britain
After the Roman Empire’s conquest of Britain in the first century A. D., the presence of administrators, merchants, and troops on British soil, along with the natural flow of ideas
and goods from the rest of the empire, had an enormous influence on life in the British Isles. Cultural influences were of three types: the bringing of objects, the transfer of craft workers, and the introduction of massive civil architecture. Many objects were not art in even the broadest sense and comprised utilitarian items of clothing, utensils, and equipment. We should not underestimate the social status associated with such mundane possessions which had not previously been available. The flooding of Britain with red-gloss pottery from Gaul (modern-day France), decorated with scenes from Classical mythology, probably brought many into contact with the styles and artistic concepts of the Greco-Roman world for the first time, whether or not the symbolism was understood. Mass-produced goods were accompanied by fewer more aesthetically impressive objects such as statuettes. Such pieces perhaps first came with officials for their own religious worship; others were then acquired by native leaders as diplomatic gifts or by purchase. Once seen by the natives, such objects created a fashion which rapidly spread through the province.
infer imply suggest support conclude
brought v. 带…到某处;带来;取来;
mundane adj. 单调的;平凡的;世俗的
possession n. 个人财产;拥有;具有;私人物品
presence n. 在场;出席;
rest v. 休息;放松 n. 其余;其他;剩余部分;残留;其余的人
Isles 岛屿;小岛;群岛
2. Paragraph 1 suggests that one benefit for British natives in buying such items as red-gloss pottery made in Gaul was
red-gloss 红色光泽
A. improved quality of utilitarian items
B. understanding the symbolism of Classical mythology
C. higher social standing
D. learning to mass-produce pottery for a profit
S： suggest 推理题 was benefit
D： red-gloss pottery Gaul
S:
G： C
3. Paragraph 1 supports which of the following ideas about contacts that existed between Britain and the Roman Empire before the Roman conquest of Britain?
A. They were sufficient for native Britons to become familiar with everyday Roman objects.
B. They were not sufficient for even very basic aspects of the culture of the Roman Empire to find their way into British life.
C. They were not sufficient for British to have heard of the power of the Roman Empire.
D. They were sufficient for individual Britons to become very interested in trying to participate in the culture of the Roman Empire.
participate vi. 参加;参与
infer imply suggest support conclude
时间对比推理 题干：before
时间对比，相应的事件对比，答案加not
S： support 推理题 before
D： conquest
S:
G： C
Determining the Ages of the Planets and the Universe
Paragraph 4
Meteorites have been radiometrically dated by means of several decay systems, including rubidium-strontium, potassium-argon, and uranium-thorium. The dates thus derived tend to cluster around 4.6 billion years, which suggests that this is the approximate age of the solar system. After many meteorites had been dated, it was gratifying to find that the oldest ages obtained for rocks gathered on the surface of the Moon also were approximately 4.6 billion years. This must, indeed, be the age of the solar system. Ancient rocks can be found on the Moon because the lunar surface, unlike that of Earth, has no water to weather and erode rocks and is characterized by only weak movements of its crust.
5. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 4 about the radiometric dating of
meteorites?
radiometric adj. 辐射度测量的
meteorites n. 陨石
cluster around 紧紧环绕
A. Scientists tried several different radiometric systems before finding one that worked.
B. The radiometric dating of different meteorites produced similar results.
C. Many meteorites were damaged by the radiometric dating.
D. Radiometric dating was not as accurate as scientists expected.
infer imply suggest support conclude
S： infer 推理题 before
D： conquest
S:
G： C
[ 目的题 - 例题讲解 ]
[ 目的题 - 例题 1 ]
Development of the Periodic Table
Paragraph 2
When the German chemist Lothar Meyer and (independently) the Russian Dmitry Mendeleyev first introduced the periodic table in 1869-70, one-third of the naturally occurring chemical elements had not yet been discovered. Yet both chemists were sufficiently farsighted to leave gaps where their analyses of periodic physical and chemical properties indicated that new elements should be located. Mendeleyev was bolder than Meyer and even assumed that if a measured atomic mass put an element in the wrong place in the table, the atomic mass was wrong. In some cases this was true. Indium, for example, had previously been assigned an atomic mass between those of arsenic and selenium. Because there is no space in the periodic table between these two elements, Mendeleyev suggested that the atomic mass of indium be changed to a completely different value, where it would fill an empty space between cadmium and tin. In fact, subsequent work has shown that in a periodic table, elements should not be ordered strictly by atomic mass. For example, tellurium comes before iodine in the periodic table, even though its atomic mass is slightly greater. Such anomalies are due to the relative abundance of the "isotopes" or varieties of each element. All the isotopes of a given element have the same number of protons, but differ in their number of neutrons, and hence in their atomic mass. The isotopes of a given element have the same chemical properties but slightly different physical properties. We now know that atomic number (the number of protons in the nucleus), not atomic mass number (the number of protons and neutrons), determines chemical behavior.
Periodic Table 元素周期表
farsighted adj. 有远见的;远视的；有先见之明的;能看到远处的
18. In paragraph 2, what is the author's purpose in presenting the information about the decision by Meyer and Mendeleyev to leave gaps in the periodic table?
leave v. 离开(某人或某处);遗弃;丢弃
decision n. (作出的)决定，抉择;决断(力);果断;作决定;决策
gap n. 开口;豁口;缺口;裂口;间断;间隔;间隙;分歧;隔阂;
present vt. 提出;提交;(以某种方式)展现，显示，表现表达，表示;交付
○To illustrate their confidence that the organizing principles of the periodic table would govern the occurrence of all chemical elements
organizing v. 组织;筹备;安排;处理;分配;规划;管理;照料
○To indicate that some of their analyses of periodic physical and chemical properties were later found to be wrong
○To support the idea that they were unwilling to place new elements in the periodic table
○To indicate how they handled their disagreement about where to place new elements
S：author's purpose 目的题
D：阴影
S：阴影标红
G：A 答案标红
[ 目的题 - 例题 2 ]
Pastoralism in Ancient Inner Eurasia
Paragraph 3
Nomadism has further consequences. It means that pastoralist societies occupy and can influence very large territories. This is particularly true of the horse pastoralism that emerged in the Inner Eurasian steppes, for this was the most mobile of all major forms of pastoralism. So, it is no accident that with the appearance of pastoralist societies there appear large areas that share similar cultural, ecological, and even linguistic features. By the late fourth millennium B.C., there is already evidence of large culture zones reaching from Eastern Europe to the western borders of Mongolia. Perhaps the most striking sign of mobility is the fact that by the third millennium B.C., most pastoralists in this huge region spoke related languages ancestral to the modern Indo-European languages. The remarkable mobility and range of pastoral societies explain, in part, why so many linguists have argued that the Indo-European languages began their astonishing expansionist career not among farmers in Anatolia (present-day Turkey), but among early pastoralists from Inner Eurasia. Such theories imply that the Indo-European languages evolved not in Neolithic (10,000 to 3,000 B.C.) Anatolia, but among the foraging communities of the cultures in the region of the Don and Dnieper rivers, which took up stock breeding and began to exploit the neighboring steppes.
Pastoralism 田园化;畜牧;畜牧业
Nomadism n. 游牧；游牧制；漫游（现象）；游牧方式（生活）
further adj. 进一步的;更多的;附加的
B.C. 公元前
reach v. 达到;到达;抵达;
mobility n. 流动性;(住处、社会阶层、职业方面的)流动能力;移动的能力;
ancestral adj. 祖传的;祖先的
accident n. (交通)事故;意外遭遇;不测事件;意外;偶然的事
ecological adj. 生态的;生态学的;关注生态环境的;主张生态保护的
12. In paragraph 3, why does the author discuss languages spoken in the region spanning from Eastern Europe to the western borders of Mongolia?
spoken adj. 口语的 说话…的
span vt. 跨越，横跨;持续;贯穿;
features n. 特色;特征;特点;
○To emphasize the frequency with which Indo-European languages changed as a result of the mobile nature of pastoralism
frequency n. (声波或电磁波振动的)频率;频繁;发生率;出现率;重复率
as a result of 由于
○To indicate one method linguists use to determine that inhabitants of the Don and Dnieper river area had taken up stock breeding
take up 开始从事
stock n. 股票;(商店的)现货，存货，库存;储备物;备用物;供应物;家畜;
breed v. 繁殖;孕育;
○To provide evidence that Indo-European languages have their roots in what is now Turkey
○To provide evidence that pastoralist societies can exercise cultural influence over a large area
exercise v. 行使;训练;
S：why author 目的题
D：阴影
S：阴影标红
G：A 答案标红
[ 目的题 - 例题 3 ]
Paragraph 2
The mobility of pastoralist societies reflects their dependence on animal-based foods. While agriculturalists rely on domesticated plants, pastoralists rely on domesticated animals. As a result, pastoralists, like carnivores in general, occupy a higher position on the food chain. All else being equal, this means they must exploit larger areas of land than do agriculturalists to secure the same amount of food, clothing, and other necessities. So pastoralism is a more extensive life way than farming is. However, the larger the terrain used to support a group, the harder it is to exploit that terrain while remaining in one place. So, basic ecological principles imply a strong tendency within pastoralist life-ways toward nomadism (a mobile lifestyle). As the archaeologist Roger Cribb puts it, “The greater the degree of pastoralism, the stronger the tendency toward nomadism.” A modern Turkic nomad interviewed by Cribb commented: "The more animals you have, the farther you have to move."
11. In paragraph 2, why does the author contrast pastoralists with agriculturalists?
○To explain why pastoralism requires more land than agriculturalism to support basic needs
○To identify some advantages that mobile societies have over immobile societies
have over v. 胜过
○To demonstrate that ecological principles that apply to pastoralism do not apply to agriculturalism
apply to 适用于;运用;涂抹，贴
○To argue that agriculturalism eventually developed out of pastoralism
out of 从…里面（走出）
S：why author 目的题
D：阴影
S：阴影标红
G：A 答案标红
[ 目的题 - 例题 4 ]
Architectural Change in Eighth-Century Japan
Paragraph 3
Moreover, because buildings using the traditional construction of thatched roofs and wooden poles placed directly in the ground rotted away in two decades or so, periodic replacement of palaces, shrines, warehouses, gate towers, and fortress walls was essential. The custom of residential mobility was thus not especially wasteful of labor and material resources: when the time came, one simply erected a new building at a new site—reusing valuable timbers as appropriate—and burned the rest. The practical necessity of replacement was given religious sanction because the regular replacement of buildings was regarded as necessary to provide spiritual cleansing of the site.
rot v.（由于细菌或霉菌作用而）（使）腐烂，（使）腐坏;
rotted away 腐烂了
thatched adj. (房屋或屋顶)用茅草(或稻草、芦苇)铺盖的
roofs n. 顶部;屋顶;车顶;有…顶的;洞顶;隧道顶
in the ground 地里;在地下
or so 大约，…左右，…上下
4. In paragraph 3, why does the author discuss the natural decay of the wooden structures built in eighth-century Japan?
A To argue that the necessity of replacing buildings every two decades applied to all eighth-century structures, not justresidences.
B To argue that the custom of residential mobility was not unreasonable given the building practices of the eighth century
given 鉴于;考虑到
C To explain why the elite of the eighth century had to move periodically to new residences
D To explain why in the sixth and seventh centuries Japanese architectural practice changed to the construction of more permanentstructures
S：why author 目的题 natural decay
D：阴影
S：阴影标红
G：答案标红
[ 目的题 - 例题 5 ]
Paragraph 5
Determining the age of the universe has been more complicated. Most stars in the universe are clustered into enormous disk-like galaxies. The distance between our galaxy, known as the Milky Way, and all others is increasing. In fact, all galaxies are moving away from one another, evidence that the universe is expanding. It is not the galaxies themselves that are expanding but the space between them. What is happening is analogous to inflating a balloon with small coins attached to its surface. The coins behave like galaxies: although they do not expand, the space between them does. Before the galaxies formed, matter that they contain was concentrated with infinite density at a single point from which it exploded in an event called the big bang. Even after it assembled into galaxies, matter continued to spread in all directions from the site of the big bang.
analogous adj. 相似的;类似的
7. Why does the author refer to “inflating a balloon with small coins attached to its surface”?
A. To help explain how the universe can expand while the galaxies remain the same size
B. To imply that the universe must eventually stop expanding
C. To support the statement that most stars are found in disk-shaped galaxies
D. To help explain how the universe began as a single point of dense matter
S：why author 目的题
D：阴影
S：阴影标红
G：答案标红
[ 目的题 - 例题 6 ]
Islamic Art and the Book
Paragraph 1
The arts of the Islamic book, such as calligraphy and decorative drawing, developed during A.D. 900 to 1500, and luxury books are some of the most characteristic examples of Islamic art produced in this period. This came about from two major developments: paper became common, replacing parchment as the major medium for writing, and rounded scripts were regularized and perfected so that they replaced the angular scripts of the previous period, which because of their angularity were uneven in height. Books became major vehicles for artistic expression, and the artists who produced them, notably calligraphers and painters, enjoyed high status, and their workshops were often sponsored by princes and their courts. Before A.D. 900, manuscripts of the Koran (the book containing the teachings of the Islamic religion) seem to have been the most common type of book produced and decorated, but after that date a wide range of books were produced for a broad spectrum of patrons. These continued to include, of course, manuscripts of the Koran, which every Muslim wanted to read, but scientific works, histories, romances, and epic and lyric poetry were also copied in fine handwriting and decorated with beautiful illustrations. Most were made for sale on the open market, and cities boasted special souks(markets) where books were bought and sold. The mosque of Marrakech in Morocco is known as the Kutubiyya, or Booksellers’ Mosque, after the adjacent market. Some of the most luxurious books were specific commissions made at the order of a particular prince and sighed by the calligrapher and decorator.
adjacent adj. 相邻;邻近的;与…毗连的
5. In paragraph 1, why does the author mention the fact that the mosque in Marrakech, Morocco, is known as the Booksellers’ Mosque?
○ To cast doubt on the importance of souks in making books available to common people
○ To provide an example of a place where books were made at the order of a particular prince
○ To emphasize how influential and well known the book markets were
○ To demonstrate the need for religious texts in Islamic lands
S：why author 目的题
D：阴影
S：阴影标红
G：答案标红
[ 目的题 - 例题 7 ]
Paragraph 3
The introduction of paper spurred a conceptual revolution whose consequences have barely been explored. Although paper was never as cheap as it has become today, it was far less expensive than parchment, and therefore more people could afford to buy books. Paper is thinner than parchment, so more pages could be enclosed within a single volume. At first, paper was made in relatively small sheets that were pasted together, but by the beginning of the fourteenth century, very large sheets---as much as a meter across---were available. These large sheets meant that calligraphers and artists had more space on which to work. Paintings became more complicated, giving the artist greater opportunities to depict space or emotion. The increased availability of paper, particularly after 1250, encouraged people to develop systems of representation, such as architecturalplans and drawings. This in turn allowed the easy transfer of artistic ideas and motifs over great distances, from one medium to another, and in a different scale in ways that had been difficult, if not impossible, in the previous period.
depict vt. 描绘;描画;描写;描述;刻画
9. Why does the author include the following information: “At first, paper was made in relatively small sheets that were pasted together, but by the beginning of the fourteenth century, very large sheets---as much as a meter across---were available.”?
A. To provide evidence that the development of papermaking techniques was very slow
B. To explain why paper was never as cheap as it has become today
C. To make the point that paper allowed artists to develop paintings that were more expressive and complex
D. To prove that paper was more popular with artists, who used large sheets, than it was with book printers, who used smaller sheets.
S：why author 目的题
D：阴影
S：阴影标红
G：答案标红
[ 目的题 - 例题 8 ]
Energy and the Industrial Revolution
Paragraph 1
For years historians have sought to identify crucial elements in the eighteenth-century rise in industry, technology, and economic power, known as the Industrial Revolution, and many give prominence to the problem of energy. Until the eighteenth century, people relied on energy derived from plants as well as animal and human muscle to provide power. Increased efficiency in the use of water and wind helped with such tasks as pumping, milling, or sailing. However, by the eighteenth century, Great Britain in particular was experiencing an energy shortage. Wood, the primary source of heat for homes and industries and also used in the iron industry as processed charcoal, was diminishing in supply. Great Britain had large amounts of coal; however, there were not yet efficient means by which to produce mechanical energy or to power machinery. This was to occur with progress in the development of the steam engine.
experiencing v. 经历;经受;遭受;感受;体会;体验
derive v. 得到;获得;取得;(使)起源;(使)产生
1. Why does the author provide the information that “Great Britain had large amounts of coal”?
○ To reject the claim that Britain was facing an energy shortage in the eighteenth century
○ To explain why coal rather than other energy resources became the primary source of heat for homes and industries in eighteenth-century Britain
○ To indicate that Britain’s energy shortage was not the result of a lack of fuel
○ To explain why coal mining became an important industry in nineteenth-century
S：why author 目的题
D：阴影
S：阴影标红
G：答案标红
2. What was “the problem of energy” that had to be solved to make the Industrial Revolution of the eighteenth century possible?
○ Water and wind could not be used efficiently
○ There was no efficient way to power machinery
○ Steam engines required large amounts of coal, which was in short supply
○ Neither humans nor animal were strong enough to provide the power required for industrial application
[ 句子插入题 - 例题讲解 ]
[ 句子插入题 - 例题 1 ]
Which Hand Did They Use?
We all know that many more people today are right-handed than left-handed. Can one trace this same pattern far back in prehistory? ■Much of the evidence about right-hand versus left-hand dominance comes from stencils and prints found in rock shelters in Australia and elsewhere, and in many Ice Age caves in France, Spain, and Tasmania. ■When a left hand has been stenciled, this implies that the artist was right-handed, and vice versa. ■Even though the paint was often sprayed on by mouth, one can assume that the dominant hand assisted in the operation. One also has to make the assumption that hands were stenciled palm downward—a left hand stenciled palm upward might of course look as if it were a right hand. ■Of 158 stencils in the Frenchcave of Gargas, 136 have been identified as left, and only 22 as right; right-handedness was therefore heavily predominant.
4. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.
The stencils of hands found in these shelters and caves allow us to draw conclusions about which hand was dominant.
Where would the sentence best fit?
定位：these shelters and caves -- shelters caves
位置：these 放后
[ 句子插入题 - 例题 2 ]
Children and Advertising
■Fantasy is one of the more common techniques in advertising that could possibly mislead a young audience. ■Child-oriented advertisements are more likely to include magic and fantasy than advertisements aimed at adults. ■In a content analysis of Canadian television, the author Stephen Kline observed that nearly all commercials for character toys featured fantasy play. ■Children have strong imaginations and the use of fantasy brings their ideas to life, but children may not be adept enough to realize that what they are viewing is unreal. Fantasy situations and settings are frequently used to attract children's attention, particularly in food advertising. Advertisements for breakfast cereals have, for many years, been found to be especially fond of fantasy techniques, with almost nine out of ten including such content. Generally, there is uncertainty as to whether very young children can distinguish between fantasy and reality in advertising. Certainly, rational appeals in advertising aimed at children are limited, as most advertisements use emotional and indirect appeals to psychological states or associations.
总分
10. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.
Another aspect of advertising that may especially influence children is fantasy. 总
Where would the sentence best fit?
定位：fantasy -- fantasy
位置：题干偏总，四个选项集中在前半段，段落结构总分，A
[ 句子插入题 - 例题 3 ]
Types of Social Groups
总分【 观点句，分论点1 + 例子1，分论点2 + 例子2 】
Second, primary groups are fundamental because they provide the settings in which we meet most of our personal needs. ■Within them, we experience companionship, love, security, and an overall sense of well-being. ■Not surprisingly, sociologists find that the strength of a group's primary ties has implications for the group's functioning. ■For example, the stronger the primary group ties of a sports team playing together, the better their record is. ■
7. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.
People who do not live alone, for example, tend to make healthier life choices and develop fewer pathologies than people who live by themselves.
pathologies n. 病理学;变态;反常
meet v. 满足;遇见;相遇
experience n. (由实践得来的)经验;经历;实践;
定位：People not live alone -- companionship, love ...
位置：for example分 / -ier比较，放后，选择B
[ 句子插入题 - 例题 4 ]
Pastoralism in Ancient Inner Eurasia
Nomadism also subjects pastoralist communities to strict rules of portability. ■If you are constantly on the move, you cannot afford to accumulate large material surpluses. ■Such rules limit variations in accumulated material goods between pastoralist households (though they may also encourage a taste for portable goods of high value such as silks or jewelry). ■So, by and
large, nomadism implies a high degree of self-sufficiency and inhibits the appearance of an extensive division of labor. ■Inequalities of wealth and rank certainly exist, and have probably existed in most pastoralist societies, but except in periods of military conquest, they are normally too slight to generatethe stable, hereditary hierarchies that are usually implied by the use of the term class. Inequalities of gender have also existed in pastoralist societies, but they seem to have been softened by the absence of steep hierarchies of wealth in most communities, and also by the requirement that women acquire most of the skills of men, including, often, their military skills. 总分
12. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage
There is a good reason for this. 总
Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square to add the sentence to the passage.
[ 句子插入题 - 例题 5 ] 段内分水岭 (句内转折)
Glacier Formation
Glaciers are slowly moving masses of ice that have accumulated on land in areas where more snowfalls during a year than melts. Snow falls as hexagonal crystals, but once on the ground, snow is soon transformed into a compacted mass of smaller, rounded grains. ■As the air space around them is lessened by compaction and melting, the grains become denser. ■With further melting, refreezing, and increased weight from newer snowfall above, the snow reaches a granular recrystallized stage intermediate between flakes and ice known as firn. ■With additional time, pressure, and refrozen meltwater from above, the small firn granules become larger, interlocked crystals of blue glacial ice. ■When the ice is thick enough, usually over 30 meters, the weight of the snow and firn will cause the ice crystals toward the bottom to become plastic and to flow outward or downward from the area of snow accumulation.
15. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.
Firn has the appearance of wet sugar, but it is almost as hard as ice.
firn n. 粒雪，积雪，冰川雪
hard adj. 坚固的;坚硬的;结实的;难做的;难懂的
hexagonal adj. 六角形的;六边形的;
rounded adj. 圆形的;全面的
compaction n. 压（夯，击）实；压缩（制；紧，力）;
dense adj. 稠密的;密集的;
further adj. 进一步的;更多的;附加的
reaches v. 到达;抵达;
additional adj. 附加的;额外的;外加的
[ 句子插入题 - 例题 6 ]
A Warm-Blooded Turtle
Leatherbacks keep their body heat in three different ways. The first, and simplest, is size. The bigger the animal is, the lower its surface-to-volume ratio; for every ounce of body mass, there is proportionately less surface through which heat can escape. An adult leatherback is twice the size of the biggest cheloniid sea turtles and will therefore take longer to cool off. Maintaining a high body temperature through sheer bulk is called gigantothermy. ■It works for elephants, for whales, and, perhaps, it worked for many of the larger dinosaurs. ■It apparently works, in a smaller way, for some other sea turtles. ■Large loggerhead and green turtles can maintain their body temperature at a degree or two above that of the surrounding water, and gigantothermy is probably the way they do it. ■Muscular activity helps, too, and an actively swimming green turtle may be 7°C (12.6°F) warmer than the waters it swims through.
13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.
However, these animals have additional means of staying warm.
staying v. 停留;待;保持;
gigantothermy 巨温性
[ 句子插入题 - 例题 7 ]
Lightning
……
That is why the subsequent lightning that follows the completed channel often strikes a tall structure. ■Once a channel has been formed, it is usually used by several lightning discharges, each of them consisting of a stream of electrons from the cloud meeting a stream of positive particles along the established path. ■Sometimes, however, a stream of electrons following an established channel is met by a positive stream making a new path up from the ground. ■ The result is a forked lightning that strikes the ground in two places. ■
24.Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.
The descending stream of electrons divides at the point where the new positive-stream channel intersects the established path.
Where would the sentence best fit?
[ 句子插入题 - 例题 8 ]
50-1 American Railroads
Paragraph1
The major cities east of the Mississippi River were linked by a spiderweb of railroad tracks. ■ Chicago’s growth illustrates the impact of these rail links. ■In 1849 Chicago was a village of a few hundred people with virtually no rail service. ■By 1860 it had become a city of 100,000, served by eleven railroads. ■Farmers to the north and west of Chicago no longer had to ship their grain, livestock, and dairy products down the Mississippi River to New Orleans;
13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence
could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square [■] to add the sentence to the passage.
Indeed, the network became so dense that by the 1860s the United States had more miles of railroad tracks than did all the rest of the world.
the rest of the world. 世界其他地区
Paragraph4
As a result, a stream feeding a delta or fan splits into many channels called distributaries. A large delta may spread out in this manner until it covers thousands of square kilometers. ■ Most fans, however, are much smaller, covering a fraction of a square kilometer to a few square kilometers. ■ The Mississippi River has flowed through seven different delta channels during the past 5,000 to 6,000 years. ■ But in recent years, engineers have built great systems of levees (retaining walls) in attempts to stabilize the channels. ■
13. Look at the four squares [▇] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square [▇] to add the sentence to the passage.
If the Mississippi River were not contained by such systems, it would probably abandon its present path and cut into the channel of a nearby river to the west.
[ 总结题 - 例题讲解 ]
[ 总结题 - 例题 1 ]
TPO 17-1 Europe’s Early Sea Trade with Asia
1. The word impetus in the passage is closest in meaning to
impetus n. 动力;推动;促进;刺激;动量;惯性
2. According to paragraph 1 why was it necessary to find a new way for European merchants to reach the East?
3. According to paragraph 2. what was the main difficulty Europeans had to overcome in order to develop a new way of trading with the East?
4. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.
The sheer scale of the investment it took to begin commercial expansion at sea reflects the immensity of the profits that such East-West trade could create.
expansion n. 膨胀;扩张;扩展;扩大
5. The word dramatically in the passage is closest in meaning to
6. It can be inferred from paragraph 2 that spices from Asia were desirable in Europe in the Middle Ages because they
7. According to paragraph 3, all of the following statements comparing the caravel
with the galley are true EXCEPT:
○The caravel had fewer masts than the galley.
○The caravel had a wider hull than the galley.
○The caravel could carry more cargo than the galley.
○The caravel was more stable in rough water than the galley.
8. According to paragraph 3, what did the lateen sail contribute to the caravel as a sailing ship?
sail n. 帆;乘船航行;(风车的)翼板
9. Why does the author include the information that Western Europeans had developed and put into use the magnetic compass
10. The word refined in the passage is closest in meaning to
there were new maps refined by precise calculations and the reports of sailors that made it possible to trace one's path with reasonable accuracy.
11. The word norms in the passage is closest in meaning to
norm n. 标准;规范;常态;定额;正常行为;行为标准
12. According to paragraph 4, which of the following is true of the maritime code developed in Europe in the fourteenth century?
14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.
Because land routes to Asia had been cut off in the fourteenth century. Europeans had to find a new way to trade with Asia.
●
●
●
Answer Choices
A. Reports by travelers indicated that people in Asia were interested in renewing trade with Europeans.
B. For trade in Asian goods such as spices to be profitable, these items must be transported in large quantities by sea.
quantities n. 数量;数额;数目;量;大量;大批;众多;大宗
C. European galleys were able to bring Asian goods across with these items needed to be transported in large quantities by Indian Ocean and around the African coastline.
D. Wind-driven caravels were developed to carry cargo across the oceans.
E. The development of maps, navigational instruments, and a maritime code of conduct provided crucial elements for long-distance navigation.
instrument n. 器械;仪器;器具;
F. Europeans wanted to import spices from Asia in order to improve the taste of food and to make perfumes and medicines.
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